Effect of compost and slow-release fertilizers addition on soil biochemistry and yield of maize (Zea mays L.) in Oaxaca, Mexico
Efecto de la adición de compost y fertilizantes de liberación lenta en la bioquímica del suelo y el rendimiento de maíz (Zea mays L.) en Oaxaca, México
Angélica Bautista-Cruz 1, Gricel Cruz Domínguez 2, María de las Nieves Rodríguez Mendoza 3, Rafael Pérez Pacheco 1, Celerino Robles 1
1 Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CIIDIR-Oaxaca, Hornos 1003, Xoxocotlan, Oaxaca, 71230, México.
mbautistac@ipn.mx
2 Graduate Student, Masters of Science in Natural Resource Conservation, Instituto Politécnico
Nacional, CIIDIR-Oaxaca, Hornos 1003, Xoxocotlan, Oaxaca, 71230, México.
3 Colegio de Postgraduados, Edafologia, Campus Montecillo, Carretera Mexico-Texcoco km 36,5.
Texcoco, 56230, México.
Originales:
Recepción: 17/10/2013
Aceptación: 15/05/2014
Abstract
The effect of Bokashi (B, a fermented compost), slow-release fertilizers (SRFs) and their combined application on mycorrhizal colonization (MC), soil invertase, cellulase, acid (AcP) and alkaline (AlP) phosphatases activities and maize (Zea mays L.) yield was investigated in terrace (TS) and valley (VS) soils in Oaxaca, Mexico. A complete randomized design, seven fertilizer treatments and four replications were used: unamended control (C); conventional fertilization (90-46-00 NPK) (CF); B; SRF1 (Multigro 6®, 21-14-10 NPK); SRF2 (Multigro 3®, 24-05-14 NPK); B+SRF1; B+SRF2. Highest root colonization percentage: CF in VS, and SRF2 in TS. Highest extraradical mycelium length: B, B+SRF1, CF in VS, and B+SRF1 in TS. In both soils, B increased the spore number. Highest AcP activity: B, SRF2 in VS, and B+SRF1, B+SRF2 in TS. Highest AlP activity: B+SRF1, CF in VS, and C in TS. Highest invertase activity: B+SRF1, SRF2, CF in VS, and B in TS. Grain yield only increased with B in VS. The significant interaction soil type × fertilizer treatment for the majority of the biological soil properties analyzed suggests that MC and soil enzyme activity response to fertilization was influenced by soil type. Bokashi, alone or combined with SRFs improves biological soil fertility in maize fields.
Keywords: Bokashi; Cellulase; Invertase; Mycorrhizal colonization; Phosphatases; Zea mays L.
Resumen
Se determinó el efecto de bocashi (B, compost fermentado) y fertilizantes de liberación lenta (SRFs) sobre la colonización micorrízica (MC), la actividad de invertasa, celulasa, fosfatasa ácida (AcP) y alcalina (AlP) y el rendimiento de maíz en suelos de terraza (TS) y valle (VS) en Oaxaca, México. Se utilizó un diseño completamente al azar con siete tratamientos y cuatro repeticiones: control (C) sin fertilización; fertilización convencional (CF) (90-46-00 NPK); B; SRF1 (Multigro 6®, 21-14- 10 NPK); SRF2 (Multigro 3®, 24-05-14 NPK); B+SRF1; B+SRF2. El porcentaje más alto de colonización micorrízica fue con CF en VS, y con SRF2 en TS. La mayor longitud de micelio extraradical se registró con B, B+SRF1 y CF en VS, y con B+SRF1 en TS. En ambos suelos, B incrementó el número de esporas. La actividad más alta de AcP fue con B y SRF2 en VS, y con B+SRF1 y B+SRF2 en TS. La actividad más alta de AlP se detectó con B+SRF1 y CF en VS y con C en TS. La actividad más alta de invertasa se encontró con B+SRF1, SRF2 y CF en VS y con B en TS. El rendimiento de grano incrementó solamente con B en VS. La interacción significativa tipo de suelo× tratamiento de fertilización, para la mayoría de las propiedades biológicas analizadas, sugiere que la respuesta de la colonización micorrízica y de la actividad enzimática a la fertilización, estuvo determinada por el tipo de suelo. Bocashi sola o combinada con SRFs puede mejorar la fertilidad biológica del suelo en cultivos de maíz.
Palabras clave: Bocashi; Celulasa; Invertasa; Colonización micorrízica; Fosfatasas; Zea mays L.
Introduction
Many researchers have studied the effect of fertilization on soil fertility
by investigating soil enzymatic activity and soil microbial biomass (26, 33).
The measurement of biochemical soil properties such as soil hydrolases
(phosphatase, invertase, cellulase, protease, urease) activity provides an early
indication of changes in soil fertility, as they are related to the mineralization of nutrients
such as P, C and N (55).
Phosphatases catalyze the hydrolysis of both organic phosphate esters
and anhydrides of phosphoric acid into different forms of inorganic P, which are
assimilable by plants. Acid phosphatases are secreted by various fungi, including
Aspergillus niger (22). Invertase catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to D-glucose and
D-fructose, and plays a critical role in releasing low-molecular-weight sugars that are
important energy sources for microorganisms (27). Invertase has been reported in
bacteria (59), yeast (6) and filamentous fungi, such as Aspergillus ochraceus (19) and
Aspergillus niger (44). Cellulases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the degradation of
cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide in plant cell walls (11). Cellulolytic bacteria
belonging to the genus of Cellulomonas, Clostridium, Bacillus, Thermomonospora,
Ruminococcus, Bacteriodes, Erwinia, Acetovibrio, Microbispora, and Streptomyces can effectively produce cellulases (47).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi represent an important component of the soil
microbial community and can significantly affect plant growth and soil stability (16).
Hydrolytic enzymes seem to be involved in the penetration and development of AM fungi
in plant roots. Mycorrhizal fungi hyphae secrete acid and alkaline phosphatases into the
rhizosphere (49). Extracellular invertases play a crucial role in the AM symbiosis (48).
Some AM fungi are also capable of secreting cellulase (53).
In most developing countries, the cost of mineral fertilizers is often limiting for
small-scale, resource poor farmers (50). It is therefore imperative that other sustainable
alternatives for soil fertility management are researched so as to ensure improved crop
production and, consequently, improved food security. Integrated management based
on slow-release fertilizers (SRFs) and organic fertilizers is one such alternative. One
of the most promising organically based soil nutrient management practices is the use of bokashi (B). Bokashi composting uses a selected group of microorganisms to
ferment organic waste (21). As a compost, B is used to improve the soil organic matter
content (7). The addition of organic matter raises the chemical, physical and biological
soil fertility (28). Mineral fertilizers, on the other hand, enhance the decomposition of
soil organic matter, which leads to degradation of the soil structure. They also reduce
the colonization of plant roots with AM and inhibit symbiotic N fixation by rhizobia due
to high N fertilization (8). Therefore, they must be used in conjunction with strategies
that are designed to manage and maintain soil organic matter. Some research has
reported the favorable effects of compost on AM (32) and soil enzyme activities (38).
Slow-release fertilizers are commonly fertilizers coated with many different
materials, such as wax resin (17), natural rubber, polyvinyl chloride and polylactic
acid (20). The granules contain primarily NPK nutrients in a form which either a) delays
its availability for plant uptake and use after application, or b) is available to the plant
significantly longer than a reference ‘rapidly available nutrient fertilizer' (29). If the
use of slow nutrient-release fertilizers meets the requirements of individual plants, the
plants can then utilize nutrients from these fertilizers more effectively, which in turn
decrease crop costs. One application can cover several applications of highly soluble
mineral fertilizers (17).
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important crops worldwide and sustainable
agricultural systems for this crop are urgently required (44, 63). In the state of Oaxaca,
Mexico, inappropriate soil management practices have led to the degradation and
deterioration of the soils, and consequently, the yield of maize has decreased as a
result of low soil fertility levels (23). Vergara-Sánchez et al. (2005) reported that 80%
of maize cropping of in Oaxaca state is performed in hillside soils (terrace) with steep
slopes > 30%, and only 20% in plains soils (valley).
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of B compost and SRFs
application on the mycorrhizal colonization, soil invertase, cellulase, acid and alkaline
phosphatases activities and yield of maize in terrace and valley soils in Nochixtlán
District of Oaxaca, Mexico.
Materials and methods
The study was conducted over the 2009 spring-summer growing cycle under
rainfed conditions in terrace and valley soils in Nochixtlán District (17°31' N y
97° 17' O), state of Oaxaca, Mexico. The average annual rainfall was 580 mm,
average annual temperatures range from 12°C to 18°C and the climate is temperate
at an altitude of 2095 m (54). First, we determined the soil properties of the study
sites. The valley soil has a clay loam texture with pH 8.20 (1/2 ratio in water), with
bulk density of 1.02 Mg m-3; 1.37 % organic carbon (Walkley and Black); 0.11% total N
(micro- Kjeldahl); 7.04 mg kg-1 P-Olsen; 0.35, 22.45 and 4.85 cmolc kg-1 exchangeable
K, Ca and Mg (atomic absorption spectrometry). The terrace soil has a clay loam texture
with pH 8.50 (1/2 ratio in water), with bulk density of 1.16 Mg m-3; 0.41% organic carbón (Walkley and Black); 0.03% total N (micro-Kjeldahl); 10.76 mg kg-1 P-Olsen; 0.23, 21.25
and 3.85 cmolc kg-1 exchangeable K, Ca and Mg (atomic absorption spectrometry).
The assays were independently conducted in both soil types; a complete
randomized design with seven fertilizer treatments and four replications was used.
The seven fertilizer treatments were:
• unamended control (C).
• conventional fertilization (CF) with highly soluble mineral fertilizers (90- 46- 00 NPK), di-ammonium phosphate (18-46-00) 100 kg ha-1, ammonium sulphate (20- 00-00) 125 kg ha-1, urea (46-00-00) 100 kg ha-1.
• B compost, 10 Mg ha-1.
• coated slow-release fertilizer (SRF1) [Multigro 6®, 21-14-10 NPK of Haifa Chemicals, Haifa, Israel] 328.57 kg ha-1 + urea 45.65 kg ha-1.
• coated slow-release fertilizer (SRF2) [Multigro 3®, 24-05-14 NPK of Haifa Chemicals, Haifa, Israel] 375 kg ha-1 + triple super phosphate 59.78 kg ha- 1.
• B compost 4 Mg ha-1+ SRF1 328.57 kg ha-1 + urea 45.65 kg ha-1 (B+SRF1).
• B compost 4 Mg ha-1 + SRF2 375 kg ha-1 + triple super phosphate 59.78 kg ha-1 (B+SRF2).
The CF was consistent with the standard practices of local farmers. The B compost
dose in treatments 6 and 7 is reduced because the Leopardo® hybrid is high yield and
early variety (51) and high quantities of available N can extend its productive cycle.
According to the owners of the land, both plots have been cropped in rainfed conditions
for more than 30 years. The terrace plot is cropped with wheat-barley-maize rotation,
but the valley plot only with maize. All the crops are managed in accordance with the
technical recommendations of the Campo Agrícola Experimental Mixteca Oaxaqueña
from the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (24).
The size of the experimental plot was 22.4 m2 with three useful rows and two rows
used to minimize edge effect; length of 7.0 m per row and 140 plants per plot. B compost
was prepared with cattle manure, wheat straw, "piloncillo" (powdered brown sugar),
coal, ash and soil.
The mean B compost composition was 18.46% organic carbon, 1.44% total N,
2.49% total P, 2.46% total K; 8.13 pH (42). Land was prepared mechanically with
a disk plough in March and a harrow plough 15 days prior to sowing. The crops
were sowed on June 15, 2009 at a density of 50,000 plants ha-1, "Leopardo®" (Asgrow- Monsanto, St. Louis, Missouri, USA) maize seed was used. The seeds
were pre-treated with Furadan® (carbofuran, a systemic acaricide, insecticide and
nematicide is the active ingredient in Furadan) for grub control.
The application of the fertilizer and B compost treatments were done eight days
post-emergence, incorporated 5 cm around the stem of each plant at a soil depth of
15 cm. At 40 days Gramoxone® and Banvel® were applied for weed control. Paraquat
is the active ingredient in Gramoxone®, and is the most highly acutely toxic herbicide to be marketed over the last 60 years. Nonetheless, it is one of the most widely used
herbicides in the world, and in most countries where it is registered it can be used
without restriction (60). Dicamba, a benzoic acid herbicide used on various crops to
control a broad spectrum of woody plants and broad leaf weeds is the active ingredient
in Banvel®. All three cited pesticides are authorized products by Mexican regulation (9).
The maize was harvested on December 15, 2009. On December 8, 2009,
one composed sample of rhizospheric soil and roots (10-15 cm from the
stem, 0-20 cm soil depth) of five mounds of maize was collected at each replication
treatment; the subsamples were randomly chosen. A portion of the soil from each
sample was stored in polyethylene bags and refrigerated (4-6°C) for the analysis of
mycorrhizal parameters. Following Zornoza et al. (2006), a second portion from the
soil of each sample was air-dried and sieved (< 2 mm) for the determination of soil
enzyme activity. The maize roots were recovered from the soil samples, thoroughly
washed, dried (60°C 48 h) and stored in plastic bags.
To determine the percentage of mycorrhizal colonization, the dry roots were
re- soaked in tap water (3-4 h). The extent of mycorrhizal colonization was determined
after clearing and trypan blue staining by the visual analysis (43) of 25-30 root segments
mounted on slides using a compound microscope (40×) (14). In soil samples, the
quantification of extraradical mycelium (ERM) length was carried out using the semisolid
gel technique described by Baath and Söderström (4,5). Recovery and counting
of spores from soil samples was carried out using the wet sieving and decanting
method (13) followed by centrifugation in a sucrose solution at 50% and observation
under a stereoscopic microscope (40×).
Acid and alkaline phosphatase activity was determined according to Tabatabai and
Bremner (52). The soil sample was incubated with a substrate containing p-nitrophenyl
phosphate; the amount of p-nitrophenol liberated during enzymatic hydrolysis was
measured by spectropothometry. Invertase activity was determined with sucrose as
the substrate. The soil sample was incubated at 37°C for 5 h. The liberated reduced
sugars were determined with the method described by Nelson (1944). The same
incubation conditions were used in determining carboxymethylcellulase activity, with
the exception being that the substrate was carboxymethylcellulose and the incubation
time was 24 h (41).
Maize ears were harvested at physiological maturity from the central part of the
experimental units in order to obtain grain yield.
Data was submitted to the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze
effects of both factors: fertilizer treatments and soil type and the interaction fertilizer
treatment × soil type. The means were separated with Tukey test (0.05%). The data
was transformed before analysis with the arcCos procedure in order to meet the
requirement of normal distribution. The statistical procedures were conducted using
the JMP 7.0® software package (JMP 7.0 for windows 7).
Results and discussion
The root colonization percentage ranged from 15 to 58% in valley soil and, from 7 to 45% in terrace soil. The highest value of this variable was with CF in valley soil, and with SRF2 in terrace soil (table 1, page 187). Similarly, Gryndler et al. (2005) reported that the addition of mineral N and P increased maize root length colonized by the mycorrhizal fungi. Contrarily, Guillemin et al. (1995) found that in a P-deficient soil, mycorrhizal colonization in pineapple roots was not modified by phosphate fertilization.
Table 1. Mean value (± standard error) of hydrolytic soil enzyme activity in the rhizosphere of maize (Zea mays L.) as affected
by fertilizer treatment and soil type in Nochixtlán District, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Tabla 1. Valores promedio (± error estándar) de la actividad de enzimas hidrolíticas en la rizósfera de maíz (Zea mays L.)
como respuesta a los tratamientos de fertilización y al tipo de suelo en el Distrito de Nochixtlán, Oaxaca, México.
The ERM length ranged from 4.15 to 12.08 m g-1 in dry soil in valley soil and,
from 2.29 to 8.65 m g-1 in dry soil in terrace soil. The highest value of this parameter
was found with B, B+SRF1 and CF in valley soil and with B+SRF1 in terrace soil
(table 1, page 187). Spore number ranged from 275 to 1412 per 100 g of soil in valley
soil and, from 356 to 837 per 100 g of soil in terrace soil. In both soils the addition of
B compost increased the spore number (table 1, page 187).
In general, the addition of B compost, alone or combined with SRF, promoted the
growth of ERM length and spore number in both soils. These results coincide with those
reported in previous studies, which have shown that organic fertilization may increase
sporulation of some AM fungi species sup, mycorrizal roots and mycelium length (57).
Álvarez-Solís et al. (2010) found that the percentage of colonization of mycorrhizal was
1.3 times higher with B than without compost in corn fields under rainfed conditions.
Maize is an obligatory mycorrhizal species and its roots are readily colonized by
many non-host-specific AM fungi (31). Gryndler et al. (16) expressed that relatively low
amounts of organic matter applied to soil can affect both plant growth and development
of AM fungi, measured as colonized root length and hyphal growth. Humic substances,
such as fulvic acids that result from the decomposition of organic fertilizers, adsorb
free cations from the soil solution and may favor the physiological functions of the
fungal mycelia (absorption and transport) (15).
Acid phosphatase activity ranged from 21.92 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 to
88.70 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 in valley soil and, from 23.18 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 to
36.90 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 in terrace soil. The highest acid phosphatase activity was
registered with B and SRF2 in valley soil and with B+SRF1 and B+SRF2 in terrace soil
(table 1, page 187).
Alkaline phosphatase activity ranged from 126.98 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 to
178.63 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 in valley soil and, from 32.25 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 to
84.75 μg p-NF g-1 soil h-1 in terrace soil. The highest alkaline phosphatase activity was
found with B+SRF1 and CF in valley soil and with C in terrace soil.
Mineral fertilizers do not directly inhibit enzyme activity, but rather, repress its
production (37). Martens et al. (1992) also reported that the addition of organic matter
maintained high levels of phosphatase activity in soil during a long- term study. Álvarez-Solís et al. (2010) indicated a positive effect in the activity of both phosphatases with
the application of compost in corn fields under rainfed conditions. Martínez-Gallegos et al. (2012) reported that the simultaneous addition of mineral SRFs and compost
enhance the phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere of Agave angustifolia Haw.
Organic matter is a source of nutrients for microorganisms and as the organic
matter content in soils increases so does the potential nutrient supply (39). N from
fertilization stimulates phosphatase activity, since that phosphatase requires substantial
N investment, and so adding N to soil increase phosphatase production (34).
Invertase activity ranged from 3.46 μg of glucose g-1 dry soil 5 h-1 to 5.17 μg of
glucose g-1 dry soil 5 h-1 in valley soil and, from 9.92 μg of glucose g-1 dry soil 5 h-1 to 12.72 μg of glucose g-1 dry soil 5 h-1 in terrace soil. The highest invertase activity
was found with B+SRF1, SRF2 and CF in valley soil and with B in terrace soil.
Adriano et al. (2012) also reported a higher invertase activity in soils cultivated with banana
(Musa spp. L.) cv. 'Grand Naine' amended with liquid bioferment+compost compared with
the unamended soil and soil amended with mineral fertilizer. Saha et al. (2008) reported
the highest invertase activity in treatments that received organic manure along with the
recommended fertilizer under rainfed soybean-wheat rotation.
Cellulase activity ranged from 0.04 μg of glucose g-1 dry soil 24 h-1 to 2.05 μg of
glucose g-1 dry soil 24 h-1 in valley soil and, from 0.02 μg of glucose g-1 dry soil 24 h-1 to
0.07 μg of glucose g-1 dry soil 24 h-1 in terrace soil. There was not a significant change
in the activity of this enzyme among fertilizer treatments in both soils.
Others studies have indicated that manure application significantly increased
cellulase activity under rainfed soybean-wheat rotation (46). Kautz et al. (2004) reported
that cellulase activity increased markedly with straw and green manure treatment, but
increased only slightly with mineral fertilization. Bokashi is a compost obtained in short
time (2-4 weeks), and fibrous residues (ligno-cellulosic) are the main component (42).
The mineralization of these components is only partial and it is assumed (there is no
published data) that the final product has a considerable proportion of cellulose.
Martens et al. (1992) showed that organic residues generally caused a significant
increase in activities of key enzymes involved in the C, N, P, and S cycles 30 days
after the first application, probably due to decomposing organic compounds releasing
a trigger molecule or promoter that stimulates the production of hydrolytic enzymes.
Organic manures supply many available nutrients that can accelerate the multiplication
of microorganisms and enzyme production, and then increase soil organisms and
enzymes
activities (38).
The nutrients from the decomposition and transformation of organic manure can
be maintained in an available form in soil, and thus can support plant growth and
development needs. High levels of soil enzyme activity accelerated the mineralization
of organic matter in soil releasing more essential nutrients such as N, P and S, required
for better plant growth and high yields (61).
Significant effects were found for the interaction soil type × fertilizer treatment for all
of the biological soil properties analyzed except for cellulase activity (table 1, page 187).
The highest value of root colonization percentage was detected in valley soil with CF,
the highest values of ERM length and spore number were found in valley soil with B. The
highest value of alkaline phosphatase activity was detected in valley soil with B+SRF1
and CF; the highest value of acid phosphatase activity was registered in valley soil with
B and SRF2; and, the highest value of invertase activity was found in terrace soil with B
(table 1, page 187). These results suggest that the response of the majority of biological
soil properties analyzed to the fertilization was influenced by the soil type.
The high soil organic carbon content in valley soil, compared with terrace soil, may
have promoted an increase in the soil microbial biomass and their activity. Moreover, many
extracellular enzymes may become stabilized through association with humic acids as a
result of an increase in the humus content derived from the addition of B compost (38).
In valley soil, grain yield ranged from 6.72 to 11.44 Mg ha-1 and increased with
the addition of B (table 1, page 187). In terrace soil, grain yield ranged from 2.46 to
6.87 Mg ha-1, the lowest grain yield was registered with C (table 1, page 187). There
were significant differences between the fertilizer treatments in each soil, but there
was no significant interaction between soil type × fertilizer treatments.
According to Álvarez-Solís et al. (2010) the yield response to compost in valley
soil may be partly due to the contribution of N and P through mineralization, which
stimulates soil acid and alkaline phosphatase activity and colonization of mycorrhizal
fungi (table 1, page 187). The doses of B compost (B vs B+SRF1 or B+SRF2) had
significant effects, although these varied by soil type. In valley soil, the acid phosphatase
activity, spore number, ERM and grain yield were higher with B, the higher dose of
compost. In terrace soil, only invertase activity was higher with B.
The greatest effects of the addition of compost for all measured variables,
with the exception of the invertase activity, were registered in valley soil
(table 1, page 187; table 2, page 190).
Table 2. Mean value (± standard error) of mycorrhizal colonization and maize (Zea mays L.) yield as affected by fertilizer
treatment and soil type in Nochixtlán District, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Tabla 2. Valores promedio (± error estándar) de la colonización micorrízica y del rendimiento de maíz (Zea mays L.) como
respuesta a los tratamientos de fertilización y al tipo de suelo en el Distrito de Nochixtlán, Oaxaca, México.
In many countries there is great interest in changing agricultural management
technologies based in the intensive use of agrochemicals. With respect to plant nutrition,
organic matter can substitute, partially or totally, the use of mineral fertilizers.
In Mexico, many public offices, research centers and private organizations
impulse these changes, with B compost as one of the products being used as
an alternative, e.g. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y
Pecuarias (25), El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (12), Universidad de La Cañada (56),
Colegio Superior para la Educación Integral Intercultural de Oaxaca (10) and Instituto
Politécnico Nacional (this paper).
Conclusions
This study has demonstrated that the type of fertilizers applied to soil could greatly
affect the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonization and hydrolytic enzyme activity,
which are considered to be sensitive indicators of soil health. Since it is generally
accepted that soil functioning and the maintenance of soil fertility depends on the
activity of soil microorganisms.
We conclude that the application of bokashi, alone or combined with slow-release
fertilizers, may significantly improve the biological soil fertility in maize fields. The
response of mycorrhizal colonization and soil enzyme activity to the fertilizer treatments
however was influenced by the soil type. The addition of bokashi increased the grain
yield in only one of the two soils studied. We suggest that the fertilizer treatments need
to be further broadened in order to be as inclusive as possible.
1 Adriano, M. de L.; Gutiérrez, F.; Dendooven, L.; Salvador-Figueroa, M. 2012. Influence of compost and liquid bioferment on the chemical and biological characteristics of soil cultivated with banana (Musa spp. L.). J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 12: 33-43.
2 Álvarez-Solís, D. J., Gómez-Velasco, D. A.; León-Martínez, N. S.; Gutiérrez-Miceli, F. A. 2010. Integrated management of inorganic and organic fertilizers in maize cropping. Agrociencia. 44: 575-586.
3 Antunes, P. M.; Lehmann, A.; Hart, M. M.; Baumecker, M.; Rillig, M. C. 2012. Long-term effects of soil nutrient deficiency on arbuscular mycorrhizal communities. Funct. Ecol. 26: 532-540.
4 Baath, E.; Söderström, B. 1979. Fungal biomass and fungal immobilization of plant nutrients in Swedish coniferous forest soils. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol 16: 477-489.
5 Baath, E.; Söderström, B. 1980. Comparisons of the agar-film and membrane-filter methods for the estimation of hyphal lengths in soil, with particular reference to the effect of magnification. Soil Biol. Biochem. 12: 385-387.
6 Belcarz, A.; Ginalska, G.; Lobarzewski, J.; Penel, C. 2002. The novel non-glycosilated invertase from Candida utilis (the properties and the conditions of production and purification). Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1594: 40-53.
7 Cahyani, S. S. 2003. The effect of Bokashi against physical and mechanical soil and plant growth pak choi (Brassica chinensis L.), a thesis Repository IPB-Bogor, Indonesia.
8 Chen, J-H. 2006. The combined use of chemical and organic fertilizers and/or biofertilizer for crop growth and soil fertility. International Workshop on Sustained Management of the Soil-Rhizosphere System for Efficient Crop Production and Fertilizer Use. Land Development Department, Bangkok 10900 Thailand.
9 CICLOPLAFEST. 2004. Catálogo de Plaguicidas. Available in: http://www.cofepris.gob.mx/AZ/ Paginas/Plaguicidas%20y%20Fertilizantes/CatalogoPlaguicidas.aspx (Accesed April 2014).
10 Colegio Superior para la Educación Integral Intercultural de Oaxaca. Manual para elaborar bokashi. Available in: http://miriam-tadeo.blogspot.mx/2012/01/colegio-superior-para-la-educacion.html (Accesed April 2014).
11 Deng, S.; Tabatabai, M. A. 1994. Cellulase activity of soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 26: 1347-1354.
12 El Colegio de la Frontera Sur. Abono orgánico "bocashi". Available in: http://cuencagrijalva.ecosur.mx/cuenca_grijalva/ pdfs/SP11_Suelos_Archivos_importantes/A311-21_Abono_organico_Bocashi.pdf (Accesed April 2014).
13 Gerdemann, J. W.; Nicolson, T. H. 1963. Spores of mycorrhizal Endogone species extracted from soil by wet sieving and decanting. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 46: 235-244.
14 Giovanetti, M.; Mosse, B. 1980. An evaluation of techniques for measuring vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal infection in roots. New Phytol. 84: 489-500.
15 Gryndler, M.; Hrselová, H.; Sudová, R.; Gryndlerová, H.; Rezácová, V.; Merhautová, V. 2005. Hyphal growth and mycorrhiza formation by the Arbuscular fungus Glomus calaroideum BEG23 is stimulated by humic substances. Mycorrhiza. 15: 483-488.
16 Gryndler, M.; Hršelová, H.; Cajthaml, T.; Havránková, M.; Řezáčová, V.; Gryndlerová, H.; Larsen, J. 2009. Influence of soil organic matter decomposition on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in terms of asymbiotic hyphal growth and root colonization. Mycorrhiza 19: 255-266. doi: 10.1007/s00572- 008-0217-y.
17 Guertal, E. A. 2009. Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers in vegetable production: A review. HortTechnol. 19: 16-19.
18 Guillemin, J. P.; Orozco, M. O.; Gianinazzi-Pearson, V.; Gianinazzi, S. 1995. Influence of phosphate fertilization on fungal alkaline phosphatase and succinate dehydrogenase activities in arbuscular mycorrhiza of soybean and pineapple. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 53: 63-69.
19 Guimarães, L. H. S.; Terenzi, H. F.; Polizeli, M. L. T. M.; Jorge, J. A. 2007. Production and characterization of a thermostable extracellular β-D-fructofuranosidase produced by Aspergillus ochraceus with agroindustrial residues as carbon sources. Enzyme Microbial. Technol. 42: 52-57.
20 Hanafi, M. M.; Eltaib, S. M.; Ahmad, M. B.; Omar, S. R. S. 2002. Evaluation of controlled-release compound fertilizers in soil. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 33: 1139-1156.
21 Herniwanti, Yanuwiadi, B.; Priatmadi, J. B.; Soemarno. 2014. Comparison of characteristic aquatic local plants for phytoremediation with different media of acid mine drainage passive treatment. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 4: 167-176.
22 Hidayat, B. J.; Eriksen, N. T.; Wiebe, M. G. 2006. Acid phosphatase production by Aspergillus niger N402A in continuous flow culture. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 254: 324-331.
23 Inforural. 2013. Mínima producción de maíz en la Mixteca. Inforural. Available in: http://www.inforural.com.mx/spip.php?article122022 (Accessed June 2013).
24 Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales. Agrícolas y Pecuarias. 2006. Catálogo de Productos y Servicios. Available in: http://www.cirpas-inifap.gob.mx/pys/Oaxaca.pdf (Accessed April 2014).
25 Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales. Agrícolas y Pecuarias. Elaboración de composta tipo bocashi. Available in: http://www.cofupro.org.mx/ cofupro/archivo/fondo_sectorial/Oaxaca/15oaxaca.pdf (Accessed April 2014).
26 Jia, J. W.; Nie, J. H.; Li, X. H.; Song, F. P.; Sang, W. M. 2001. Study on the relationship between the soil physical-chemical properties and soil enzymatic activities of plastic greenhouse. J. Shandong Agric. Univ. (Nat. Sci.). 32: 427-432.
27 Jin, K.; Sleutel, S.; Buchan, D.; De Neve, S.; Cai, D. X.; Gabriels, D.; Jin, J. Y. 2009. Changes of soil enzyme activities under different tillage practices in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Soil Till. Res. 104: 115-120.
28 Kalantari, S.; Hatami, S.; Ardalan, M. M.; Alikhani, H. A.; Shorafa, M. 2010. The effect of compost and vermicompost of yard leaf manure on growth of corn. African J. Agric. Res. 5: 1317-1323.
29 Kaplan, L.; Tlustoš, P.; Száková, J.; Najmanová, J. 2013. The influence of slow-release fertilizers on potted chrysanthemum growth and nutrient consumption. Plant Soil Environ. 59: 385-391.
30 Kautz, T.; Wirth, S.; Ellmer, F. 2004. Microbial activity in a sandy arable soil is governed by the fertilization regime. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 40: 87-94.
31 Khalil, S.; Loynachan, T. E.; Tabatabai, M. A. 1994. Mycorrhizal dependency and nutrient uptake by improved and unimproved corn and soybean cultivars. Agron. J. 86: 949-958.
32 Linderman, R. G.; Davis, E. A. 2004. Evaluation of commercial inorganic and organic fertilizer effects on arbuscular mycorrhizae formed by Glomus intraradices. HortTecnology. 14: 196-202.
33 Liu, J. X. 2004. Correlative research on the activity of enzyme and soil nutrient in the different types of farmland. Chin. J. Soil Sci. 35: 20-23.
34 Marklein, A. R.; Houlton, B. Z. 2012. Nitrogen inputs accelerate phosphorus cycling rates across a wide variety of terrestrial ecosystems. New Phytol. 193: 696-704.
35 Martens, D. A.; Johanson, J. B.; Frakenberger, W. T. 1992. Production and persistence of soil enzymes with repeated additions of organic residues. Soil Sci. 153: 53-61.
36 Martínez-Gallegos, V.; Bautista-Cruz, M. A.; Robles, C. 2012. Phosphatase responses in the rhizosphere of Agave angustifolia Haw. on base to organic-mineral fertilization. Naturaleza y Desarrollo 10: 28-45.
37 McCarty, G. W.; Shogren, D. R.; Bremner, J. M. 1992. Regulation of urease production in soil by microbial assimilation of nitrogen. Biol. Fert. Soils 12: 261-264.
38 Medina, A.; Azcón, R. 2010. Effectiveness of the application of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi and organic amendments to improve soil quality and plant performance under stress conditions. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 10: 354-372.
39 Milpa-Mejía, S.; Grenón-Cascales, G. N.; González-Castellanos, A.; Vázquez-García, L. M. 2012. Cultivo en maceta de Iris xiphium L. (Iris de Holanda) con diferentes concentraciones de humus de lombriz y sus lixiviados. Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de la Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Mendoza. Argentina. 44(2): 109-117.
40 Nelson, N. 1944. A photometric adaptation of the Somogyi method for determination of glucose. J. Biol. Chem. 153: 375-380.
41 Pancholy, S. K.; Rice, E. L. 1973. Soil enzymes in relation to old field succession: amylase, cellulase, invertase, dehydrogenase, and urease. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 37: 47-50.
42 Pérez, A.; Céspedes, C.; Núñez, P. 2008. Caracterización física-química y biológica de enmiendas orgánicas aplicadas en la producción de cultivos en República Dominicana. Rev. C. Suelo Nutr. Veg. 8: 10-29.
43 Phillips, J. M.; Hayman, D. S. 1970. Improved procedures for clearing roots and staining parasitic and VA mycorrhizal fungi for rapid assessment of infection. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 55: 158-161.
44 Rosas, S. B.; Avanzini, G.; Carlier, E.; Pasluosta, C.; Pastor, N.; Rovera, M. 2009. Root colonization and growth promotion of wheat and maize by Pseudomonas aurantiaca SR1. Soil Biol. Biochem. 41: 1802-1806.
45 Rubio, M. C.; Navarro, A. R. 2006. Regulation of invertase synthesis in Aspergillus niger. Enzyme Microbial Technol. 39: 601-606.
46 Saha, S.; Prakash, V.; Kundu, S.; Kumar, N.; Mina, B. L. 2008. Soil enzymatic activity as affected by long term application of farm yard manure and mineral fertilizer under a rainfed soybean-wheat system in N-W Himalaya. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 44: 309-315.
47 Saratale, G.D.; Chen S.D.; Lo, Y.C.; Saratale, R.G.; Chang, J.S. 2008. Outlook of biohydrogen production from lignocellulosic feedstock using dark fermentation-a review. J Sci. Ind. Res. 67: 962-979.
48 Schaarschmidt, S.; Roitsch, T.; Hause, B. 2006. Arbuscular mycorrhiza induces gene expression of the apoplastic invertase LIN6 in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) roots. J. Exp. Bot. 57: 4015-4023.
49 Singh, S. 2006. Phosphorus mobilization by mycorrhizal fungi-Part 1. Production and detection of phosphatases. Mycorrhiza News. 18: 1-27.
50 Smestad, B. T.; Tiessen, H.; Buresh, R. J. 2002. Short fallows of Tithonia diversifolia and Crotalaria grahamiana for soil fertility improvement in western Kenya. Agrofor. Sys. 55: 181-194.
51 Sociedad Cooperativa Agropecuaria de la Comarca Lagunera S. C. L. Leopardo: silo de calidad en menor tiempo. Available in: http://www.cooplaguna.mx/productos/Maiz%20Leopardo.pdf (Accessed April 2014).
52 Tabatabai, M. A.; Bremner, J. M. 1969. Use of p-nitrophenyl phosphate in assay of soil phosphatase activity. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1: 301-307.
53 Talbot, J. M.; Allison, S. D.; Treseder, K. K. 2008. Decomposers in disguise: mycorrhizal fungi as regulators of soil C dynamics in ecosystems under global change. Funct Ecol. 22: 955-963.
54 Transparencia Fiscal de Oaxaca. 2010. Plan Municipal de Desarrollo Rural Sustentable: Santa María Chachoapam, Nochixtlán, Oaxaca. Available in: http://transparencia.finanzasoaxaca.gob.mx/pdf/marco/Regionales/mixteca/404_santa_maria_chachoapan.pdf. (Accessed November 2010).
55 Trasar-Cepeda, C.; Leirós, M. C.; Gil-Sotres, F. 2008. Hydrolytic enzyme activities in agricultural and forest soils. Some implications for their use as indicators of soil quality. Soil Biol. Biochem. 40: 2146-2155.
56 Universidad de la Cañada. 2013. Boletín informativo Julio 2013. Available in: http://naxoloxa.unca.edu.mx/boletin/ pages/julio_2013/Boletin_Julio_2013.pdf (Accessed April 2014).
57 Valarini, P. J.; Curaqueo, G.; Seguel, A.; Manzano, K.; Rubio, R.; Cornejo, P.; Borie, F. 2009. Effect of compost application on some properties of a volcanic soil from central south chile. Chilean J. Agr. Res. 69: 416-425.
58 Vergara-Sánchez, M. A.; Etchevers-Barra, J. D.; Padilla-Cuevas, J. 2005. Hillside soils fertility at the Oaxaca´s Northern Sierra, México. Agrociencia. 39: 259-266.
59 Warchol, M.; Perrin, S.; Grill, J. P.; Schneider, F. 2002. Characterization of a purified β-fructofuranosidase from Bifidobacterium infantis ATCC 15697. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 15697: 462-467.
60 Watts, M. 2011. Empowering people for change Panap pesticide action network Asia & the Pacific. p. 1-43.
61 Yang, L.; Li, T.; Li, F.; Lemcoff, J. H.; Shabtai, C. 2008. Fertilization regulates soil enzymatic activity and fertility dynamics in a cucumber field. Scientia Hort. 116: 21-26.
62 Zornoza, R.; Guerrero, C.; Mataix-Solera, J.; Arcenegui, V.; Mataix-Beneyto, J. 2006. Assesing air-drying and rewetting pre-treatment effect on some enzyme activities under Mediterranean conditions. Soil Biol. Biochem. 38: 2125-2134.
63 Zuliani, P.; Lavalle, A.; Bramardi, S. J.; Defacio, R. 2012. Caracterización de poblaciones nativas de maíz mediante Análisis de Procrustes Generalizado y Análisis Factorial Múltiple. Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de la Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Mendoza. Argentina. 44(1): 49-64.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the support of the Secretaría de Investigación y Posgrado from Instituto Politécnico Nacional (Grant SIP20110480). We thank Scarlett Jones for her linguistic support in editing the English of this document.